\u201cLaminaged amber\u201d also stemmed from a fascination with a new synthetic material, polyester resins, and their possibilities. It was easy to mould products with complicated shapes, an aesthetic appearance, and good properties from them \u2013 low density and high strength, the ability to be coloured, and to produce transparent products with a sheen similar to natural amber.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Glued amber<\/strong> This is natural amber embedded in resin. Most often, it is created by embedding crumbs and small pieces of natural amber in polyester or epoxy resin. Sometimes, Fillers<\/span>, which can be: colloidal silica, wood flour, also amber dust and others \u2013 they give the resin more favourable application properties and pigments. Necklaces<\/span>, brooches, bracelets and pendants using such stones were made in considerable numbers worldwide as early as the 1940s.<\/p>\n\n\n\n In Poland, it was only at the beginning of the 1960s \u2013 when the Chemical Works in Sarzyna began producing polyester resins \u2013 that this material significantly made its mark in amber artisans' workshops. This is because polyester resins appeared on the market in liquid form with varying consistencies, most often thick and liquidy, with a golden colour and complete transparency.<\/p>\n\n\n\n A fascination with the properties and capabilities of polyester and epoxy resins led to their thickening, colouring, and use in bonding amber, as well as in filling its gaps and cracks. Mr and Mrs Wac\u0142aw and Wies\u0142aw Domas\u0142owski, amber conservators at the Malbork Castle Museum, developed and applied a method for conserving historic amber works from the Malbork collection based on the use of these resins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Polyester resin inspired amber craftsmen to experiment. Matrices were prepared from thick PVC foil by placing the original pieces of jewellery, which were to be subsequently produced, under it on a perforated plate and creating a vacuum by sucking out the air. The foil, heated from above with hot air, softened and adhered tightly to the original pieces. After cooling, indentations corresponding to the shapes of the original pieces were formed in it. Cleaned small pieces of amber were then poured into the resulting indentations of the model. They were then flooded with resin at room temperature, which at that time was called Polimal-109 and was produced at the \u201cOrganika\u201d plant in Sarzyna.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The resin cured as a result of an initiated copolymerisation reaction. The initiators used include, for example, organic peroxides such as benzoyl peroxide and cyclohexanone peroxide (HCH) in an amount of approximately 4%, or methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (Ketonox) in a quantity of approximately 0.1%. The curing process is additionally carried out in the presence of a polymerisation accelerator, selected depending on the initiator used. For initiators from the diacyl peroxide group, tertiary amines are used as accelerators; for ketone peroxides, metal salts are used, for example cobalt naphthenate added in an amount of approximately 0.4%. I would like to point out that polymerisation initiators (peroxides) and their mixtures with accelerators are flammable and explosive; therefore, special precautions must be taken when working with these substances.<\/p>\n\n\n\n As a result of the reaction taking place in such a system, the resin undergoes a cross-linking process, as a result of which the resin becomes hard, infusible and insoluble. After full curing, the stones obtained in this way were processed in the same way as natural amber: individual elements of a single product were glued together, most often with Epidian, ground, scratches were polished out, and the items were polished. PVC film models were used multiple times.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The products produced in this way: Necklaces, bracelets, pendants, cufflinks <\/span>In addition, between 1965 and 1970, the ART-REGION Cooperative Association, belonging to \u201cCepelia\u201d, a cooperative company dealing in folk art and crafts, was buying up supplies. During this period, there was a shortage of amber raw material to an extent unimaginable even today, and the market was completely devoid of natural amber products.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Amber products made from bonded amber, which mainly utilised amber fragments that could not be used in other ways, therefore represented a sort of substitute for coveted natural amber on the market. Following a radical improvement in the supply of amber raw material in 1968, due to the discovery of significant quantities of amber during the construction of the Northern Port in Gda\u0144sk, and subsequently the invention of a hydraulic method for washing amber out of deposits in the Vistula Delta, Cepelia withdrew this type of product from its range.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The production of bonded amber was then undertaken, mainly using a homeworking system, by the FOTO-PAM Plant of the Polish Tourist and Sightseeing Society in Sopot, supplying the market with huge quantities of stones for jewellery, brooches, necklaces<\/span>, clasps, handles, and various other items. The factory also produced caskets, vases, and amphorae. Demand for amber glass products on the market was so great that ceramic imitations were created copy<\/span>. The quality of amberoid products created at that time was not the best, but they still found buyers \u2013 this was a time when anything produced sold on the Polish market.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Rosa Hunger, in her book The magic of amber<\/em> (1977 London) characterised our market at the beginning of the 20th century, presenting amber glue as the most typical of our production.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Patty C. Rice in her book Amber: The Golden Gem of the Ages<\/em> (1980 New York) states that the technology for producing imitations from polyester resins with pieces of amber embedded in them originated in Germany, and that the material was named there Polyberne<\/strong>, from the names of polyester resin and amber. Sculptures, small jewellery, and souvenirs were made from it. Such imitations of amber products made from polybern were also produced in Lithuania.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Michael Ganzelewski in an article Amber substitutes and imitations: amber \u2013 tears of the gods<\/em> (1996 Bochum) states that on the German market, vases, lampshades, bracelets, and paperweights made of so-called \u201cPolibern\u201d \u2013 a polyester resin with small pieces of amber embedded in it \u2013 are encountered.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Currently, jewellery made from bonded amber, which contains significantly less amber than in previous years, is also produced, Pendants, crosses<\/span>, keyrings, lucky pyramids, Seaside souvenirs<\/span>, small figure<\/span>These products do not fall within Classification of Baltic amber gemstones<\/span>, are not subject to trade by Polish amber craftsmen. They are encountered in street trade and at fairs. They should be treated as a substitute for amber, a cheap souvenir from the seaside.<\/p>\n\n\n\n However, significant quantities of products made from small pieces of amber embedded in resin are currently produced in Russia, despite it holding the world's largest deposits and continuously active amber mines in the Kaliningrad Oblast. For many years, imitations have been produced there from polyester resin, known as Dust<\/span> and with combined resins<\/span>. The range and variety of imitations produced there have recently expanded significantly.<\/p>\n\n\n\n It is also produced from a material with the trade name Polyberne<\/strong>. According to information received from the Institute of Amber and Regional Resources in Kaliningrad, polibern is produced there by embedding various fractions of amber in polyether resin. The amber content in the mass must not be less than 50%. Additives are also used to improve its properties. This resin has a density of 1.23\u20131.5 g\/cm\u00b3, swells when exposed to benzene and toluene, and produces shavings when scratched or cut. The commercial price for polyberne products must not exceed 300 USD per kilogram of products.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The range of products made from polybern appears to be significant, as the Amber and Regional Resources Institute in Kaliningrad alone has over one hundred designs in its catalogue made from this type of glued amber, starting with magnificent chess sets, candleholders, powder compacts and eggs in holders<\/span>, and peaches, cubes<\/span> to play<\/span> and small animal figurines <\/span>These products, sometimes inadequately described, are sold in Russia in exclusive amber galleries, alongside masterfully crafted items made of natural amber: beautiful caskets, candle holders, and icons.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The Eastern market is poorly recognised, from which products and jewellery imitating amber have recently been arriving in mass quantities, made from various plastics: polyester resins, galalith and many other combined resins, in which there are different proportions of individual components, making their unambiguous identification often difficult even with spectroscopic methods.<\/p>\n\n\n\n These are products of modern, contemporary technology used in the manufacture of imitations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n A sculpture originating from China Elephant<\/span> Recently, Dr. Eng. Ewa Wagner-Wysiecka from the Faculty of Chemistry at Gda\u0144sk University of Technology studied the sculpture using infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR, KBr). Samples were taken from several locations on the sculpture. Based on the analysis of the obtained spectra, she demonstrated that Baltic amber (succinite) is present in a thin layer on part of the surface of the elephant sculpture studied. A substance taken from the elephant's leg to a depth of approximately 5 mm is a mixture of synthetic resin and Baltic amber, while the entire significant remainder of the over three-hundred-gram sculpture is made of polyester resin. This combined imitation is designed to mislead, including the appraiser examining it, and to disrupt the surface examination, which is usually performed on such items. It is also intended to suggest that it is a luxurious, valuable item made of Baltic amber, a beautiful elephant with its trunk raised, an elephant that is meant to guarantee happiness for its owner. Meanwhile, it is a counterfeit that will certainly not bring happiness; on the contrary, such a purchase is a considerable loss.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Manufactured goods bonded amber<\/strong> It's easy to recognise. Nuggets of amber embedded in resin are visible to the naked eye, but it's more difficult when \u2013 as in the case of the elephant sculpture from China \u2013 amber dust may have been embedded, or a type of amber extract has been combined with resin in varying concentrations. In such cases, more thorough laboratory tests are necessary.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Polyesters<\/strong> These are polymers obtained from polybasic acids and polyhydric alcohols via polycondensation. Polyesters are macromolecules containing ester groups in their main chains. They are mainly obtained as a result of the polycondensation reaction of acids and glycols or hydroxy acids. They can also be obtained via polyaddition from olefin oxides and acid anhydrides, but also by the polymerisation of lactones. Depending on the structure of the reagents, linear polyesters or those with an appropriate degree of cross-linking are obtained. Several groups of industrially produced polyesters are distinguished, including unsaturated polyesters, which are thermosetting plastics. A solution of polyester in a monomer is called polyester resin<\/strong>. It can be in the form of a thick, yellow syrup; their Polish trade name is Polimal with an appropriate numerical designation. As a result of copolymerisation with a suitable initiator, one obtains cured resin<\/strong> (copolymer).<\/p>\n\n\n\n The mechanical properties of the cured product depend on the construction of the base resin and the method of its curing. The thermal resistance of cured Polimal exceeds 150 degrees C. A cured polyester resin product placed in a flame ignites very reluctantly. It burns with a bright yellow flame, releasing black smoke and a lot of soot, as well as a characteristic styrene odour. After removal from the flame, it usually extinguishes itself.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Hardened polyesters are insoluble in organic solvents, and swell slightly in acetone.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Polyester, as stated by Prof. Barbara Kosmowska-Ceranowicz in Amber fakes \u2013 copal and artificial resins<\/em> (2001), according to A.M. Shedrinsky, came onto the market between 1942 and 1947, although they had been known since 1936.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Polyethers<\/strong> These are polymers whose structure's main element are ether linkages (C-O-C).<\/p>\n\n\n\n These are plastics with a high tendency to crystallise and high mechanical strength, and a relatively low melting point compared, for example, with polyesters. The polyether group includes certain epoxy resins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Unpaved Epoxy resins<\/strong>, whose Polish trade name is Epidian with the appropriate digital designation, are compounds containing one or more epoxy groups capable of reaction, referred to as curing reactions, as a result of which they transform into cross-linked, insoluble, and infusible plastics. A large group of these types of resins are dian resins, compounds which are products of the reaction of epichlorohydrin with dian (Bisphenol A). The curing process of epoxy resins is a polyaddition, in which a polyamine, for example, can act as a hardener. A characteristic feature of epoxy resins is excellent adhesion to almost all plastics, and especially metals, and good mechanical properties. Epoxy resin adhesives form bonds comparable to rivets and welds. Their thermal resistance exceeds 150 degrees C. A cured product made from Epidian ignites with difficulty, then burns, swelling and smoking. It does not extinguish when removed from the flame. It smells strongly during combustion, emitting a characteristic sweet odour. Epoxy resins are soluble in acetone, dioxane, and methyl ethyl ketone. Before curing, they are also soluble in aromatic hydrocarbons. Epoxy resins can be used with fillers: kaolin, talc, amber dust, graphite, powdered metals, which modify their properties.<\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" Imitations of amber used to appear on the market in larger quantities during crises: those related to wars and, as a consequence, societal impoverishment, a lack of sufficient amber raw material, or increased demand for amber jewellery caused by, for example, fashion needs.<\/p>","protected":false},"featured_media":26876,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"template":"","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"slim_seo":{"title":"Bursztyn klejony - polibern. Okruchy bursztynu ba\u0142tyckiego zatopione w \u017cywicach sztucznych - Amber Portal","description":"Imitations of amber usually appeared on the market in greater quantities during crises: those related to wars and, as a consequence, social impoverishment."}},"tags":[],"lokalizacja":[],"temat":[223],"class_list":["post-13948","bursztyn","type-bursztyn","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","temat-bursztyn-baltycki"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/amber.com.pl\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/bursztyn\/13948","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/amber.com.pl\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/bursztyn"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/amber.com.pl\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/bursztyn"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/amber.com.pl\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/26876"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/amber.com.pl\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=13948"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/amber.com.pl\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=13948"},{"taxonomy":"lokalizacja","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/amber.com.pl\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/lokalizacja?post=13948"},{"taxonomy":"temat","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/amber.com.pl\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/temat?post=13948"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}Simulated amber from glued amber during the period of raw material shortage<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Modern application<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Recognition<\/h3>\n\n\n\n